Module 6

The 1970’s developed into a forever-changing era in both the culture of young adults, as well as with the music. Our young adults during the 1970’s began to focus on materialistic and conservative attitudes (Starr and Waterman, pg. 368).  The need for more mature music, due to culture and social changes, the musicians solution to this problem was the creation of several sub-genres of both rock and popular music. Commercial radio was highly influential on the dissemination of these new sub-genres, including styles like pop rock, adult contemporary, singer-songwriters, soft soul, country pop, bubblegum, and disco (pg. 371).  Some of these genres, like “soft soul,” were the result of the influence of previously popular genres like Motown.  Even with new genres dominating the radio, “oldies radio” were introduced in the 1970’s, giving the music of “older artists” (Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry) a fresh look with new audiences.  

Several songs from this weeks reading helped to bring about the changes as well as highlight man of the new sub-genres These sub-genres include rock, disco, progressive country, reggae, salsa and hip-hop. Looking at rock music first, while never really changing, rock music increased in variety, as exemplified in the songs “Stairway To Heaven” and “Oye Como Va.”  Led Zeppelin’s “Stairway To Heaven” was never released as a single because in order to own the song, the listener had to purchase the entire album (pg. 389).  “Stairway To Heaven” is a strong departure from the rock music of previous eras because the band’s musical influence for this rock song includes urban blues of southern California, elements of folk music, and psychedelia.  The song is a juxtaposition of hard rock and soft folk creating somewhat of a sacred experience for its primarily young, male audience (pg. 391).  Meanwhile, Carlos Santana’s “Oye Como Va” exemplifies influence of previous generations.  Santana grew up with mostly latin influences and rock music, but was able to incorporate other genres such as jazz into his music as shown in “Oye Como Va.”  He used his virtuosity of the guitar to lead his song while incorporating Latin instruments like timbales, an agogo, congas, and other Latin percussion (pg. 394).  The lyrics of “Oye Como Va,” as well as many of his early recordings are less important than the instrumental elements to his song similar to artists of the earlier in the decade.  The lyrics are sung in short phrases, allowing the listener to be exposed to the instrumental and emphasizing the “groove” of the song. 

Disco was another sub-genre that became quite popular during the 1970’s. The term “disco” comes from “discotheque,” a term used for nightclubs that played pre-recorded music that people would dance to.  “Bad Girls” by Donna Summer and “Good Times” by Chic are representative of the disco era. Both contain an incessant beat, a steady, medium-fast tempo, a straightforward, repetitive form, straightforward subject matter and lyrics, and limited harmonic vocabulary (pg. 405).  While these elements are certainly derived from many other forms of music, they incorporated an amazing quality seen in music history of “back to the basics” approach with a couple of new school ideas. These new ideas included the use of new technologies like a guitar wah-wah pedal, sultry and sexy vocals (often times by females), the use of reverb, and the synthesizer (pg. 404).  

Although the 1970’s served as a period of stylistic conservatism and corporate consolidation in popular music, a handful of 1970’s music did not fit neatly into the frameworks of Top 40 radio (pg. 408).  New styles like progressive country music, reggae, salsa, new wave, funk, punk, and hip-hop emerged, further contributing to the idea that American vernacular music is an umbrella-like term, covering many genres and sub-genres.  Progressive country, artists like Willie Nelson and Townes Van Zandt led this movement with an unpolished vocal style, and as exemplified in “Poncho And Lefty,” the typical European-derived ballad form studied in prior chapters (pg. 412).  Similar to the evolution of disco, Van Zandt puts new twists on the old form, as he addresses a character within the lyrics using a second-person writing style and later in the third-person, the more typical lyrical writing style of ballads (pg. 412).  In addition to contemporary country, reggae was considered to be the first style of the rock era to originate in the third world (pg. 413).  Similar to Rhythm and Blues in America, the style is highly syncopated, sometimes using elements like fast tempos, brass instrumentation, and emphasis of the backbeat.  “Rock steady” was a slower style of reggae, combining elements of burru drumming (pg. 414).  When speaking of “reggae,” it has become automatic to associate Bob Marley (of The Wailers) with this musical movement.  Marley’s writing and performing style is laudable, serving as reggae’s international ambassador (pg. 416).  His songs are rooted in the Rastafarian belief system, referencing determination, rebellion, and faith (pg. 416).  Salsa music also gained credibility in the 1970’s.  Salsa music, still popular today, became a craze because of its highly intense, passionate qualities allowed for the accompaniment of dance.  An important factor in the emergence of salsa music was the rise of independent Latin-oriented record companies (pg. 419). 

Rap and hip-hop music is unlike every other genre covered within our readings, receiving much public scrutiny (pg. 437).  Songs like “The Message” by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five reflect on African musical and verbal traditions, with an emphasis on rhythmic momentum and creativity and complex tone colors and dense textures (pg. 438).  The emergence of hip-hop in the 1970’s ultimately led to the rap movement. New techniques like “scratching” records and using digital samples became the norm for hip-hop music while making it extremely popular with the youth and incorporated new styles, dances, as well as audiences. “The Message” portrays all of the aforementioned elements of a rap/hip-hop record, presenting a very real vision of life in urban culture. These elements are still prevalent in rap and hip-hop music today.

Module 5

During the 1960’s, some of the most socially and culturally influenced music was created to highlight the emotions and tension created in America. As stated by Staff and Waterman, “Few eras in American history have been as disruptive, controversial, and violent as the decade of the 1960’s,” (pg. 284).  This era was highly impressionable on musicians and culture alike.  Many historians of pop culture point to the impact of the assassination of JFK as the need for young people to buy into something more fun and uplifting (pg. 302).  From the British Invasion of the Beatles to the Civil Rights movement, every audience in vernacular music has something that was easily relatable to their emotions, struggles, celebrations or simply pleasures.  

The early 1960’s was the golden age for rock n’ roll vocal groups (pg. 290).  Records were written with the influence of Phil Spector and his “wall of sound.” Not only all-white male groups, but all-female black groups began to gain recognition during this time, like The Ronettes (“Be My Baby”) and The Crystals (“Uptown”).  “Be My Baby” illustrates Spector’s “wall of sound” by incorporating a doubling of instrumental parts in the vocals, allowing that to be the focus. Simultaneous to Spector, Berry Gordy Jr. was making a strong impact on the music of the early 1960’s with the Motown movement. Named after “the motor city,” Gordy was determined to keep all of the creative and financial aspects of the business under African American control (pg. 293).  While the Motown movement sought to create a sound for young America of all races, it certainly catered to African American musicians while still aimed at the commercial mainstream audience (pg. 294).  Gordy Jr. was a lot like Spector sharing the same passion for highlighting vocal groups, like Motown’s group The Supremes and their hit “You Can’t Hurry Love.” While not really in competition, it should be noted that Motown was a much more successful label than Spector’s Philles Records. Motown would begin to exemplify the rock n’ roll trends of the time (pg. 295).  “My Girl,” performed by The Temptations, is exemplary of the Motown sound with an opening statement that the listener engaged. “You Can’t Hurry Love” by The Supremes shows the label’s versatility in that it has a much more sophisticated sound and arrangement than previous songs of the Motown era (pg. 296). 

Simultaneous to the Motown movement, artists like The Beach Boys were making their mark on American vernacular music, creating a unique sound that branched out from the traditional forms, sounds, and lyrical content of rock n’ roll (pg. 299).  Brian Wilson, who served as the group’s main songwriter, led the Beach Boys.  Wilson acknowledged his reliance on previous rock n’ roll artists to carve out distinctive new musical ground for The Beach Boys (pg. 300).  Take “Surfin’ U.S.A.” as an example, which borrows the music of Chuck Berry’s 1958 hit “Sweet Little Sixteen.”  Paying homage to Berry’s influence on rock n’ roll, Wilson shifts the focus of the tune from dancing to surfing (pg. 300). The Beach Boys were also known for creating the “California Sound.” This sound featured new audio and harmony techniques that would eventually turn to Beach Music. The Beach Boys were able to focus their sounds on a younger generation for social and dancing purposes.

The Rock n’ Roll movement of the 1960’s had several influential members, but the most influential of this era, and most of American Popular music, was the British Invasion group known as The Beatles. This group of “mop top” teenagers from Britain was heavily influenced by some of Americas “rock n’ roll musicians.” While many artists blew up in American during the British invasion (The Rolling Stones, The Who, The Kinks), The Beatles’ mass-audience appeal out-shadowed all others. “Please Please Me” is a straightforward, up-tempo love song containing many elements of rock n’ roll from previous years like an AABA form (pg. 306).  Its lyrics  emphasized the message with rhyming words as well as using “Please, please me”  as an adverb and then a verb.  Clearly, this song is exemplary of both the group’s lyrical and songwriting genius.  Compared to the harmonies of “Please, Please me”,  “A Hard Day’s Night” shows maturity and growth in the harmonic sense.  Chords outside of the 12-bar blues progression are used very effectively.  Take the third line in each of the A stanzas as an example, which resolves on the tonic chord for the phrase “feel all right,” first heard at about 0:21 of the song, to give the listener a musical reference of the singer’s resolve (pg. 307).  One of my all time favorite Beatles songs “Yesterday,” performed by Paul McCartney, crosses generational and stylistic divides in popular music (pg. 308).  It showcases melodic and harmonic genius, alternating between major and minor tonalities and pairing these tonalities with lyrics that fit them well. Often this song is used to demonstrate the use of these tonalities to depict emotions in my classes. The way the context can change with lyrics and tonality is truly astonishing and something that had not been truly experimented with until Paul McCartney.  The ascension of the phrase “all my troubles seemed so far away” using the melodic minor scale is indicative of this claim.  Further, the AABA form, straightforward lyrics, strophic form, and McCartney’s vocal approach certainly lend to the idea that this song very much evokes Tin Pan Alley models (pg. 308).  

Bob Dylan and the Urban folk music still existed through the Motown, soul, and rock n’ roll movements.  While his hits like “Blowin’ In The Wind” and “Like A Rolling Stone” led this movement, referencing many touchy subjects and acting as “protest songs,” (pg. 342).  Dylan would writhe albums that featured both acoustic and electric instrumentation for the idea of Urban Rock n’ Roll.  Dylan’s influence through these methods of songwriting allowed the idea for rock n’ roll to become “adult,” (pg. 344).  “Like A Rolling Stone” is written in strophic form, building the story through the use of music. It references growth, and often returns to the lyric “how does it feel?” to provide the listener an opportunity to place themselves into the song. This was a very common approach in both folk music as well as more popular music to allow the audience to feel involved in the approach of the music.    

Module 4

Upon the conclusion of World War II, some of the most advanced pushes to vernacular music took place as Starr and Waterman (pg.199). With these advances, the way we brought this music to the masses would have to be transformed through the use of radios, broadcasting, recording and records. The record companies began to target the youth as well as young adults or “audiences” as it is referred to today. In the early 1950’s, popular and revolutionary ideas began to emerge such as Tdd Storz and the idea of Top 40 radio programming (pg. 201), record companies paid DJs to put their records into “heavy rotation”, magnetic tape recording, audiotape and tape recorders contributed to the evolution of the quality recordings (pg. 202).  This idea is further supported by noting the “Battle of the Speeds” in which LP’s (Created by Columbia) were introduced to compete with the sound quality of its predecessor: the 78 r.p.m. disc (pg. 203).  This movement was then answered by the RCA Victor Corporation’s creation of the 45 (pg. 204).  To reach a technological compromise, turntables were set up to accommodate all three existing formats (pg. 204).  Most of all, television played a strong role in the influence of American music on culture.  Audiences had new access to music in a form that fused radio, records, and cinema into one. 

In 1946, the focus of popular music changed from band leaders/instrumental leaders like Count Basie, Glenn Miller, and Benny Goodman to crooners like Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, and Nat “King” Cole to name a few (pg. 205).  Sinatra’s unique approach to  singing became known as the crooner singing style. A great example of this style is found in Sinatra’s “Nancy (With The Laughing Face).”  Sinatra always wanted to replicate the melodic strength, smoothness, and playing techniques of instrumentalists to his singing (pgs. 207-208).  Another great band leader of the time was Nat “King” Cole. One of his better known pieces, especially his 1948 recording of “Nature Boy” was his first record with full orchestral accompaniment.  Cole was most well known for other styles and pieces, however,  “Nature Boy” truly exemplifies his success in an era that was dominated by white artists.  This song reached number one on the Billboard charts where it remained for eight weeks – obviously a very big deal for an African American musician.  While Nat “King” Cole’s career was remarkable in the fact that he became one of the most successful artists of the crooner era, but that he surpassed predominantly white musicians in doing so. In later years, the crooner style and need to write “hit” songs at the time influenced Broadway.  Previously dominated by the works of Rodgers and Hammerstein (Oklahoma!, South Pacific, The Sound of Music) until the death of Hammerstein in 1960, the appearance of Broadway songs on pop charts became a less common occurrence (pg. 212).  

Styles of music formally known as “hillbilly music” underwent a series of changes to meet the demand of social needs within the desired audiences. Once these changes were made, “hillbilly music,” became known as  “Country” and “western.” Urban Folk music, led by artists like The Weavers (starring Pete Seeger) and Woody Guthrie, performed repertoire based on American folk songs which would influence many future artists, like Peter, Paul, and Mary, Bob Dylan, and the Kingston Trio. Country and western music would explode in popularity after World World II (pg. 231).  Country’s core audience would begin in the south but would eventually spread evenly to other parts of the country. As the style would begin to spread, certain sub genres would form, including bluegrass (“It’s Mighty Dark To Travel”) and honky tonk (“The Wild Side of Life” and “It Wasn’t God Who Made Honky-Tonk Angels").  Of all country/western artists to emerge at this time, Hank Williams is the most significant single figure (pg. 237).  One of his best songs, “I’m So Lonesome I Could Cry” is strophic, allowing the audience to follow the story more clearly, while his song “Hey, Good Lookin’” is somewhat different, and considered a startling anticipation of a later movement in the fusion of blues and country/western - rockabilly (pg. 238). 

In a similar style, as “hillbilly music” began to change, so did Rhythm and Blues music, formerly known as “race music.”  Louis Jordan’s “Choo Choo Ch’ Boogie” is written in a “jump blues” style, the first commercially successful category of rhythm and blues (pg. 221).  Jordan’s recording influenced a number of future artists, such as the infamous Chuck Berry and James Brown. Along with Jordan, “Choo Choo Ch Boogie” was cowritten by Milt Gabler and two country and western musicians. While the “jump blues” style was extremely popular during this time, another popular style was a mix of blues and crooner music. On of the most notable performers, Charles Brown, had a famous performance in 1950 of “Black Night.” Brown’s smooth sound and piano accompaniment helped him gain a reputation in the musical world. Another famous piece that exemplified the style of R and B was  Muddy Waters’ “Hoochie Coochie Man.” This song was indicative of call-and-response alternation between the vocals and instrumental accompaniment, including guitars and harmonica.  “Doo-wop” also received acclaim as part of the Postwar music movement.  “Doo-wop” groups like The Dominoes solidified themselves in the popular mainstream with usage of new techniques like rocking dance rhythms, naughty lyrics, and a bass lead vocal (pg. 227).  The Mambo Craze of the late 40’s and early 50’s provided a “ramp up” of energy on the dance floor (pg. 215).  It was up-tempo, highly energized, polyrhythmic in texture, and a variant of previous big band music.  “Mambo No. 5” by Perez Prado and performed by Prado and His Orchestra is a great example of music of the Mambo style, containing all of the elements of dance music as well as popular music. 

Module 3

Between end of World War I and the beginning of World War II, would bring a great deal of diversity to major cities in the United States. Areas such as New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Detroit and Nashville would soon house many rural communities. As these families began to travel, their typical ideas of “popular music” began to take shape into a vast new repertoire of new styles of music. It became the combination of urban style with rural style. Two main forms from this relocation according to Starr, were called race and hillbilly music. Race music was the style that would relate more to African American folk music (pgs. 126, 127). The folk traditions were able to meld together elements of blues, jazz, gospel, string band and jug-and-washboard bands (pg. 127). One element that was also very strong in race music was the use of personal tales or connections. Songs like W.C. Handy’s “St. Louis Blues” featuring Bessie Smith and Louis Armstrong contain lyrics that were written to highlight the singer’s mistrust over love gone wrong and the hopes to find happiness.  Similar to blues and early rock and roll music it includes a 12-bar blues progression as well as notes within the blues scales. The lyrics from popular race songs create an atmosphere of personal reflections on their past including love, childhoods, emotional connections as well as quality of life. This was in most cases of African Americans all that they had. All of the qualities are closely related to popular blues and rock and roll music, which would shape the future for African American composers.

Hillbilly songs would take shape using new interesting sounds such as new approaches to sounds as well as nonsense syllables. Yodeling was a tactic that was used by Jimmie Rodgers.  He adapted the poetic and musical forms of the blues, as well as certain aspects of blues performance styles (pg. 148) while still respecting the rural origins of southern music.  His “Blue Yodel No. 2” contains a 12-bar blues progression, similar to race music and his melody was very personal.  “Waiting for a Train” also contains a yodel that sounds lonesome, a stylistic element that has influenced more current composers like Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard (pg. 149). While many composers between WWI and WWII would focus on their personal stories, their mark on American popular music would last for years to come. The concepts of “race music” and “hillbilly” composers of the time were highly influential, that these ideas are very note-worthy when examining the evolution of blues, country, and folk music.  

The style of southern gospel music is another form of personal music. Roosevelt Fennoy wrote the song “The Sun Didn’t Shine” with the idea of disassociation from the “dirty” music of blues (pg. 151).  This song in particular allows for vocal virtuosity and intricate rhythms while still relating to personal attributes. Around the 1960’s, the emergence of “soul” incorporated elements of black gospel music but was highly frowned upon up (pg. 151).  Black gospel music of the 1930’s was highly ornate and favored expressivity, unlike the music of the Carter family like “Gospel Ship.”  “Gospel Ship” is rather straightforward, exemplary of the humble devotion to faith within white gospel music (pg. 151).  Essentially, the music of the 1930’s experienced a transition in style, themes, and expansion within the music business (pg. 153). More and more musicians began to think more like businessmen with ideas of branding as well as how to better sell their music  The songs of the time injected social realism, chronicling the suffering of the people (pg. 152) which became highly relatable and marketable.

The evolution of “swing” was an important economic and musical movement.  It represented a step toward communication across racial boundaries, although unequal (pg. 160).  While there were still serious issues with racial tension, African Americans experienced difficulties in getting equal airtime as compared to white musicians. With the evolution of swing music (both white and black swing bands), audience began to appreciate the music rather than the color of the musicians. Swing music impacted culture in a way that allowed for African Americans and white musicians to appeal to similar audiences. “Wrappin’ It Up” by Fletcher Henderson was an exemplary composition of the time, containing call-and-response sections, which were musical traditions, found in gospel and blues music (pg. 161).  These “conversations” were adopted by white bands, further exemplifying the movement of crossing racial boundaries (pg. 161).  It is important to note that swing music appealed to young adults, particularly teenagers and college-age young adults in the form of dance and social gatherings. One of the biggest hits of the swing era was “In The Mood,” arranged by Glenn Miller.  He uses a “trick” ending, making the conclusion of the composition quieter and quieter and eventually finishing strong (pg. 173).   “In The Mood,” became one of the great swing standards that is still performed to this day. It provides students in my jazz band with difficult rhythms and harmonies that incorporate a timeless tradition of swing with a touch of history. While often times it is hard to remember, music of the 1930’s and 40’s maintain a tradition to this day in the 21^st century – leaving its true mark on history.